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PRE — Plant Risk Evaluator

Caesalpinia spinosa -- California

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Evaluation Summary

photo by Zoya Akulova

Evaluation Date:  2022-10-10

Screener:  Melanie Davis
 
Plant:  Caesalpinia spinosa
Common Name(s):
Spiny holdback, Tara

State:  California
PRE Score:  11
Questions Answered:  20
Screener Confidence (%):  75

Executive Summary

Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze, also commonly known as spiny holdback or Tara, is a small to
medium tree in the family Fabaceae that has been utilized since ancient times for its versatile seeds. As its
name suggests, this plant is armed with spines which lend to its reported usefulness as a natural barrier in
agricultural systems. This plant is primarily native to xeric areas of the Andes Mountains in South
America, especially in Peru. However, it has since spread to other parts of the world as an ornamental or
cultivated crop, and in some locations, such as Southern California, it has escaped captivity. While
cultivated Tara can produce copious amounts of seeds through many months of the year, plants in natural
areas exhibit a wide degree of variability in both seed production and germination rate depending on local
environmental conditions. Balaguer et al. (2011) state Tara can reproduce via root suckers, however
essentially all other accounts of this species only mention reproduction via seed. Seeds possess no special
morphological adaptations to aid with dispersal, and it is thought seeds are primarily dispersed via
endozoochory. Where Tara has escaped, it has previously been designated only as naturalized and not
invasive. Based on the results of this evaluation, Caesalpinia has a low chance of becoming invasive in
California.

Climate Matching Map

Attachment Size
ClimateMatch_CA_Caesalpinia_spinosa_2.pdf (1.12 MB) 1.12 MB

1. Question 1

Yes
1
Very High
Caesalpinia spinosa is native to the Andes mountains of South America, particularly in Peru, and is distributed in arid zones of the Peruvian coast and shrubby habitats in the Andes up to 3000m (De la Cruz Lapa 2004) and was introduced for horticulture and landscaping and has become naturalized in southern coastal regions of California and can be found outside its range in northern and eastern Africa, southern Europe including Portugal, Australia, New Zealand, South Asia, the Middle East, and the United States at lower densities (Wojciechowski & McClintock 2012, GBIF 2022, USDA 2022).
Wojciechowski, Martin F, and E McClintock. n.d. “Caesalpinia Spinosa” 2022. Jepson Flora Project. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=16513.
“Caesalpinia Spinosa (Molina) Kuntze in GBIF Secretariat”. 2021 2022. GBIF. https://www.gbif.org/species/2958521.
“Plant Profile: Caesalpinia Spinosa”. n.d. USDA NRCS Plants Database. https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=CASP11.

2. Question 2

Yes
2
Very High
Although only a small portion of the C. spinosa native range is similar in climate to California, the range within Argentina, most of the regions that this species has become naturalized are more similar to California, such as Portugal (De la Cruz Lapa 2004, de Almeida 2006, GBIF 2022)
Lapa, De la Cruz. 2004. “Aprovechamiento Integral Y Racional de la Tara Caesalpinia Spinosa - Caesalpinia Tinctoria”. Revista del Instituto de Investigación de la Facultad de Minas, Metalurgia Y Ciencias Geográficas 7: 64-73. doi:10.15381/iigeo.v7i14.733.
“Caesalpinia Spinosa (Molina) Kuntze in GBIF Secretariat”. 2021 2022. GBIF. https://www.gbif.org/species/2958521.
de Almeida, Domingues, and H Freitas. 2006. “Exotic Naturalized Flora of Continental Portugal \textendash A Reassessment”. Botanica Complutensis, 117-30.

3. Question 3

No
0
Medium
I could not find information on it being invasive, however it's highest rate of occupancy outside of its native range is California, where it is considered naturalized, meaning that it is not invasive where the occupancy outside of it's native range is highest (Wojciechowski & McClintock 2012, GBIF 2022, USDA 2022).
Wojciechowski, Martin F, and E McClintock. n.d. “Caesalpinia Spinosa” 2022. Jepson Flora Project. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=16513.
“Caesalpinia Spinosa (Molina) Kuntze in GBIF Secretariat”. 2021 2022. GBIF. https://www.gbif.org/species/2958521.
“Plant Profile: Caesalpinia Spinosa”. n.d. USDA NRCS Plants Database. https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=CASP11.

4. Question 4

No
0
Low
I found no evidence that Caespalinia spinosa is invasive where it occurs outside its native range. (Wojciechowski & McClintock 2012, GBIF 2022, USDA 2022).
“Caesalpinia Spinosa (Molina) Kuntze in GBIF Secretariat”. 2021 2022. GBIF. https://www.gbif.org/species/2958521.
Wojciechowski, MF, and E McClintock. 2012. “Jepson EFlora: Taxon Page for Caesalpinia Gilliesii” 2022. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=16498.
“Plant Profile: Caesalpinia Spinosa”. n.d. USDA NRCS Plants Database. https://plants.usda.gov/home/plantProfile?symbol=CASP11.

5. Question 5

No
1
High
A handful of Caesalpinia species are described as weeds (Coetzer and Neser 1999). Erythrostemon gilliesii (previously Caesalpinia gilliesii), native to South America, has become naturalized in areas of the American Southwest (Wojciechowski and McClintock 2012, Calflora 2022), although it is not categorized as invasive. A handful of Caesalpinia species are known to be invasive, prominently among which is C. decapetala. Caesalpinia decapetala is considered invasive across various parts of the world, including parts of West Africa, South Africa, and Hawaii (Coetzer and Neser 1999, Starr et al 2003, Byrne 2011). However, C. decapetala and other members of this genus which are considered invasive are seemingly restricted to tropical or subtropical habitat, which likely will not overlap with California climate (Coetzer and Neser 1999). For instance, in South Africa, a country composed largely of areas with similar climate to California, C. decapetala is restricted to the far-eastern coast where it is presumably wetter and, according to the Climate Match model, is not similar to California.
Wojciechowski, MF, and E McClintock. 2012. “Jepson EFlora: Taxon Page for Caesalpinia Gilliesii” 2022. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=16498.
Coetzer, W, and S Neser. 1999. “Biological Control Initiatives Against the Invasive Oriental Legume, Caesalpinia Decapetala (Roth) Alston (Mauritius Thorn)”. Biological Control of Weeds in South Africa (1990\textendash1998). African Entomology Memoir 1: 145-52.
Byrne, MJ, ETF Witkowski, and FN Kalibbala. 2011. “A Review of Recent Efforts at Biological Control of Caesalpinia Decapetala (Roth) Alston (Fabaceae) in South Africa”. African Entomology 19: 247-57.
Starr, Forest, Kim Starr, and Lloyd Loope. (2003) 2003. “Caesalpinia Decapetala”. Maui, Hawai\textquoterighti.
“Taxon Report: Caesalpinia Spinosa”. 2022. Berkeley, California: The Calflora Database [a non-profit organization]. https://www.calflora.org/app/taxon?crn=1230.

6. Question 6

No
0
High
Caesalpinia spinosa is found predominately within its native range, which, for the most part, differs in climate from the region of concern. Only a small portion of the C. spinosa native range in Argentina is similar in climate to California, most of the regions that this species has become naturalized are more similar to California (de Almeida 2006, Wojciechowski & McClintock 2012, GBIF 2022). Areas that Caesalpinia spinosa are found include South Africa*, Eastern Spain*, North Africa*, Southeastern Australia*, Madagascar, New Zealand, Eastern South America, and it's native range of Argentina*, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. Regions with and '*' indicate a similar habitat to California. Although most of the regions that Caesalpinia spinosa is found and non-native are similar to California, it occurs in pretty low density worldwide, with the greatest density in its native range and unlike the climate of California.
de Almeida, Domingues, and H Freitas. 2006. “Exotic Naturalized Flora of Continental Portugal \textendash A Reassessment”. Botanica Complutensis, 117-30.
Wojciechowski, Martin F, and E McClintock. n.d. “Caesalpinia Spinosa” 2022. Jepson Flora Project. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=16513.
“Caesalpinia Spinosa (Molina) Kuntze in GBIF Secretariat”. 2021 2022. GBIF. https://www.gbif.org/species/2958521.

7. Question 7

No
0
Medium
I was unable to find empirical information on this. Caesalpinia spinosa crowns can reach up to 6 meters in width, however the crown is sparse and the species is commonly used in agriculture because it exerts very little competition with other agricultural crops and the sparse crown cover allows other crop plants to germinate (Tucto & Duponnois 2018). While C. spinosa can occur in small forests, it generally is more often found as isolated individuals (Escuer 2012).
Sangay-Tucto, Sheena, and Robin Duponnois. 2018. “Ecological Characteristics of Tara (Caesalpinia Spinosa), a Multipurpose Legume Tree of High Ecological and Commercial Value”. In , 189-208. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Escuer, Castell, and Joan Carles. 2012. “TARA (Caesalpinia Spinosa): The Sustainable Source of Tannins for Innovative Tanning Processes”. TDX (Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa). https://upcommons.upc.edu/handle/2117/94584.

8. Question 8

No
0
Low
I was unable to find any information on this.
No references cited.

9. Question 9

No
0
High
Caesalpinia spinosa has thorns (Wojciechowski & McClintock 2012, Tucto & Duponnois 2018) however they are not extremely long nor appear capable of causing serious harm. Young trees do not have spines and grazing reduces density of C. spinosa forests, showing the opposite, that grazing systems impact native stands of this species (Cordero et al 2016).
Although there is some speculation on whether the high tannin content of Caesalpinia spinosa may be lethal if the pods are consumed in large quantities (Orwa et al 2009), I was unable to find further data to support this.
Orwa, C., K. R. Mutua, Roeland Kindt, Ramni Jamnadass, and Anthony John Simons. 2009. “Agroforestree Database:A Tree Reference and Selection Guide Version 4.0”. http://apps.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/AFTPDFS/Caesalpinia_spinosa.PDF.
Sangay-Tucto, Sheena, and Robin Duponnois. 2018. “Ecological Characteristics of Tara (Caesalpinia Spinosa), a Multipurpose Legume Tree of High Ecological and Commercial Value”. In , 189-208. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Wojciechowski, MF, and E McClintock. 2012. “Jepson EFlora: Taxon Page for Caesalpinia Gilliesii” 2022. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=16498.
Cordero, I., M. D Jiménez, J. A. Delgado, L. Villegas, and L. Balaguer. 2016. “Spatial and Demographic Structure of Tara Stands (Caesalpinia Spinosa) in Peru: Influence of Present and past Forest Management”. Forest Ecology and Management 377: 71-82. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2016.06.034.

10. Question 10

No
0
Medium
While Caesalpinia spinosa can grow in small forests and individuals can grow up to 15 meters (Wojciechowski & McClintock 2012, Escuer 2012, Tucto & Duponnois 2018), and C. spinosa has been grown as a 'live fence' for agricultural reasons (seperating areas, yield fruit, and encouraging bees), it does not appear that this species will naturally create impenetrable thickets (Cordero et al 2016, Tucto & Duponnois 2018)
Dostert, N., J. Roque, G. Brokamp, Asunción Cano, María I. La Torre, and Maximilian Weigend. 2013. “Seven Vascular Plants Species Used in Peru: Factsheet Botanical”. Arnaldoa 20: 359-432.
Wojciechowski, Martin F, and E McClintock. n.d. “Caesalpinia Spinosa” 2022. Jepson Flora Project. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=16513.
Sangay-Tucto, Sheena, and Robin Duponnois. 2018. “Ecological Characteristics of Tara (Caesalpinia Spinosa), a Multipurpose Legume Tree of High Ecological and Commercial Value”. In , 189-208. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Cordero, I., M. D Jiménez, J. A. Delgado, L. Villegas, and L. Balaguer. 2016. “Spatial and Demographic Structure of Tara Stands (Caesalpinia Spinosa) in Peru: Influence of Present and past Forest Management”. Forest Ecology and Management 377: 71-82. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2016.06.034.

11. Question 11

Yes
1
Very High
This species can re-sprout from damaged portion of the tree or from root suckers (Balagur 2011), although the primary recognized reproduction strategy is by seed (Dorstert 2013).
Balaguer, Luis, Rosa Arroyo-Garcia, Percy Jiménez, María Dolores Jiménez, Luís Villegas, Irene Cordero, Rafael Rubio de Casas, et al. 2011. “Forest Restoration in a Fog Oasis: Evidence Indicates Need for Cultural Awareness in Constructing the Reference”. PloS One 6: e23004.
Dostert, N., J. Roque, G. Brokamp, Asunción Cano, María I. La Torre, and Maximilian Weigend. 2013. “Seven Vascular Plants Species Used in Peru: Factsheet Botanical”. Arnaldoa 20: 359-432.

12. Question 12

No
0
High
The only means of asexual reproduction I was able to find on Caesalpinia spinosa are from regrowth from damaged parts of the plant and root suckers (Balagur 2011). The primary method of reproduction is by seed and it is not documented that this species can reproduce new plants via detached fragments (Dostert 2013, Tucto & Duponnois 2018)
Sangay-Tucto, Sheena, and Robin Duponnois. 2018. “Ecological Characteristics of Tara (Caesalpinia Spinosa), a Multipurpose Legume Tree of High Ecological and Commercial Value”. In , 189-208. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Balaguer, Luis, Rosa Arroyo-Garcia, Percy Jiménez, María Dolores Jiménez, Luís Villegas, Irene Cordero, Rafael Rubio de Casas, et al. 2011. “Forest Restoration in a Fog Oasis: Evidence Indicates Need for Cultural Awareness in Constructing the Reference”. PloS One 6: e23004.
Dostert, N., J. Roque, G. Brokamp, Asunción Cano, María I. La Torre, and Maximilian Weigend. 2013. “Seven Vascular Plants Species Used in Peru: Factsheet Botanical”. Arnaldoa 20: 359-432.

13. Question 13

Yes
1
Very High
Fresh seeds with no treatment and older seeds that have been scarified have a >90% germination rate in a controlled setting (Dorstert 2013).
Dostert, N., J. Roque, G. Brokamp, Asunción Cano, María I. La Torre, and Maximilian Weigend. 2013. “Seven Vascular Plants Species Used in Peru: Factsheet Botanical”. Arnaldoa 20: 359-432.

14. Question 14

Yes
1
Very High
In agriculture, trees can produce an average of 20-40kg of pods twice per year, the number of seeds per kg fluctuates between 3000-4500 (De la Cruz Lapa 2004, Tucto & Duponnois 2018). Although agricultural trees are pruned to encourage higher seed pod production (Tucto & Duponnois 2018), seed yield is still extremely high, with trees producing at least 120,000 seeds twice a year.
No references cited.

15. Question 15

Yes
1
Medium
Conditions for recruitment are particular based on environmental conditions (Balaguer 2011, Tucto & Duponnois 2018), but I was unable to find any information on actual germination rates without altered environmental conditions and Dostert (2019) reports extremely high germination rates, however these numbers are from seeds grown for agriculture in a controlled setting.
Sangay-Tucto, Sheena, and Robin Duponnois. 2018. “Ecological Characteristics of Tara (Caesalpinia Spinosa), a Multipurpose Legume Tree of High Ecological and Commercial Value”. In , 189-208. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Balaguer, Luis, Rosa Arroyo-Garcia, Percy Jiménez, María Dolores Jiménez, Luís Villegas, Irene Cordero, Rafael Rubio de Casas, et al. 2011. “Forest Restoration in a Fog Oasis: Evidence Indicates Need for Cultural Awareness in Constructing the Reference”. PloS One 6: e23004.
Dostert, N., J. Roque, G. Brokamp, Asunción Cano, María I. La Torre, and Maximilian Weigend. 2013. “Seven Vascular Plants Species Used in Peru: Factsheet Botanical”. Arnaldoa 20: 359-432.

16. Question 16

Yes
1
Very High
Trees begin to reproduce after 4-5 years (Escuer 2012), in some agricultural settings it is possible to harvest in the third year and in natural states harvest is possible at the fourth year (Tucto & Duponnois 2018)
Sangay-Tucto, Sheena, and Robin Duponnois. 2018. “Ecological Characteristics of Tara (Caesalpinia Spinosa), a Multipurpose Legume Tree of High Ecological and Commercial Value”. In , 189-208. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Escuer, Castell, and Joan Carles. 2012. “TARA (Caesalpinia Spinosa): The Sustainable Source of Tannins for Innovative Tanning Processes”. TDX (Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa). https://upcommons.upc.edu/handle/2117/94584.

17. Question 17

Yes
1
Very High
Caesalpinia spinosa has a bloom period of 4 months, May through August (Calflora 2022) and trees yield enough pods for two harvests per year, although some wild populations may not reliable have two harvests per year, while agricultural plants will likely be receiving optimal growing conditions and will produce more (Tucto & Duponnois 2018).
Sangay-Tucto, Sheena, and Robin Duponnois. 2018. “Ecological Characteristics of Tara (Caesalpinia Spinosa), a Multipurpose Legume Tree of High Ecological and Commercial Value”. In , 189-208. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
“Taxon Report: Caesalpinia Spinosa”. 2022. Berkeley, California: The Calflora Database [a non-profit organization]. https://www.calflora.org/app/taxon?crn=1230.

18. Question 18

Yes
1
High
Distribution of Caesalpinia spinosa trees and high germination after scarification confirm large herbivore based dispersal (Dostert 2013, Balaguer 2011, Cordero 2016), and domestic herbivores (cows and goats) have been proven to be effective dispersal mechanisms for C. spinosa >100m (Cordero 2016).
Balaguer, Luis, Rosa Arroyo-Garcia, Percy Jiménez, María Dolores Jiménez, Luís Villegas, Irene Cordero, Rafael Rubio de Casas, et al. 2011. “Forest Restoration in a Fog Oasis: Evidence Indicates Need for Cultural Awareness in Constructing the Reference”. PloS One 6: e23004.
Dostert, N., J. Roque, G. Brokamp, Asunción Cano, María I. La Torre, and Maximilian Weigend. 2013. “Seven Vascular Plants Species Used in Peru: Factsheet Botanical”. Arnaldoa 20: 359-432.
Cordero, I., M. D Jiménez, J. A. Delgado, L. Villegas, and L. Balaguer. 2016. “Spatial and Demographic Structure of Tara Stands (Caesalpinia Spinosa) in Peru: Influence of Present and past Forest Management”. Forest Ecology and Management 377: 71-82. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2016.06.034.

19. Question 19

No
0
Low
The size of the seeds eliminate wind dispersal (Wojciechowski & McClintock 2012), and New Zealand Plant Conservation Network lists that dispersal is likely by water, but this source does not have any citations and does not give evidence. This source is likely also just referring to dispersal within New Zealand. Dispersal by water cannot be confirmed by any other sources.
Network, New Zealand Plant Conservation. n.d. “Caesalpinia Spinosa”. https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/caesalpinia-spinosa/.
Wojciechowski, MF, and E McClintock. 2012. “Jepson EFlora: Taxon Page for Caesalpinia Gilliesii” 2022. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=16498.

20. Question 20

No
0
Low
I could not find any information on accidental dispersal or dispersal through contaminated seed.
No references cited.

Total PRE Score

11
20
75

PRE Score Legend

The PRE Score is calculated by adding the point totals for each (answered) question.

< 13 : Low Potential Risk
13 - 15 : Moderate Potential Risk
> 15 : High Potential Risk

Questions Answered Legend

It is important to answer at least 16 questions to consider a PRE Score as "valid".

≥ 16 : Valid (80% or more questions answered)
≤ 15 : Invalid (not enough questions answered)

Evaluation Credits and Citation

Screener:  Melanie Davis

 

Below is a recommend citation when referencing this evaluation in other works:

Davis, Melanie. "Caesalpinia spinosa -- California" Plant Risk Evaluator (PRE) published 2022-10-10 https://pretool.org/evaluations/1796

 

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Evaluation Reviewers

Ron Vanderhoff reviewed on 2023-02-26
Tom Reyes reviewed on 2023-02-20
Elizabeth Brusati reviewed on 2023-02-10
Nicole Valentine reviewed on 2023-01-05
Jutta Burger reviewed on 2022-11-13
Lynn Sweet reviewed on 2022-11-07

 

Associated Project

2022 Western IPM Grant Project

"Expanding Continuity and Capacity in Invasive Plant Risk Assessments across Western States" is a continuation of the successful 2021 project titled "Building Continuity Across State Invasvie Plant Lists: Evaluating Invasive Risk of Horticultural Plants." Both 2021 and 2022's projects are funded by the Western Integrated Pest Management Center. Project partners for this year inclue the California Invasive Plant Council, PlantRight, The University of Arizona, Western Invasive Species Network, Pacific Northwest Invasive Species Council, the Yurok Tribe, and Nevada State Parks. 

 

Associated Organizations, Agencies, and Institutions

California Invasive Plant Council (Cal-IPC)
PlantRight

 

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